READING SECTION:
There are a number of question archetypes in the Reading section that we will go over one-by-one, with examples.
Data Visualization
The final major question type on the Reading section will present you with some arguments/claims from an author as well as charts or graphs showing information related to the subject discussed. These questions will typically ask what aspect of the data supports or refutes the author’s argument. This is essentially the same as the “Main Point” question type and you should use similar strategies here, except with the added necessity of parsing chart data.
In the early 20th century, the invention of the automobile revolutionized transportation, ushering in an era of unprecedented mobility. With the mass production of automobiles, travel times decreased significantly, and the accessibility of distant destinations increased. However, along with these benefits came environmental concerns, particularly regarding air pollution. As the number of vehicles on the road soared, so did emissions of harmful pollutants such as carbon monoxide and nitrogen oxides.
Which answer most effectively uses data from the chart to support the main argument of the text?
A) Automobile emissions of carbon monoxide and nitrogen oxides steadily decreased from 1920 to 1970.
B) Vehicles per capita increased from 1920 to 1960 while US Population remained steady
C) Total US Population increased from 1920 to 1960
D) Vehicles per Capita and US Population both increased from 1920 to 1970 while CO2 emissions increased as well
Answer A) is simply false given the information in the chart. Answer B) is also false as the US population grew. Answer C) is true given the chart, but does not on its own justify the main argument in the text (that increasing vehicular usage contributed to CO2 emissions increases), as the total US population could have increased without a corresponding rise in vehicle ownership or CO2). Answer D) is correct.
Fill-in-the-Blank Vocab
These questions will ask you to find the appropriate word within the context of a sentence or short passage. See the example below:
The works of Banksy have long been viewed as _____; while some view his art as cliché vandalism, others view his graffiti as a series of brilliant and perceptive statements on modern society.
A. maudlin
B. spurious
C. polarizing
D. vociferous
The first step to cracking this type of question is finding the clue within the sentence; the question will give you information that lets you infer the general meaning of the word in the blank. Depending on the difficulty of the question, you may be able to intuit the exact meaning, or more of a general sense (positive vs. negative, adjective vs. noun) of what fits.
In the above example, the section after the semicolon gives us the clue. We know that some people view Banksy’s art one way, and that others view it a different (and opposing) way. This tells us that the word in the blank needs to imply multiple perspectives. Many of the words given may make sense in the first part of the sentence, and may even be accurate descriptors of Banksy’s work, but only one of them will specifically imply multiple opposing viewpoints. Before even looking at the answer choices, write down your idea of the word that makes sense within the sentence in your notes section. In this case you might note down either a simpler word, like “controversial,” or just a general description such as “opposing viewpoints”.
Having a strong vocabulary is obviously helpful, and the Vocab review section earlier in this course will help build the foundations for this. However, there may be words on the exam that slip through the cracks of your preparation. You can get a perfect score on the Reading section of the SAT without knowing every single word on the test.
How might we approach this question if we didn’t know the words in the answer choices? First, we remember what we are looking out for based on the clue: a word that implies opposing viewpoints.
“Maudlin” does not seem to have an obvious root and so doesn’t give much information away. We set this answer choice aside as Neutral for now, but if you vaguely remember coming across this word in readings in the past, you may remember the general sense of what it means, even if the specific description evades you. Does “maudlin” give you a clear positive or negative sense? Note that down as a potential clue.
“Spurious” also does not look obviously similar to more common words, and so doesn’t give too much away. However, you may have heard the term “spurious correlation” thrown around by instructors in science or stats classes, or in articles on the internet. That phrase doesn’t seem to make much sense for a word that implies opposing viewpoints.
“Polarizing” is a more commonly used word than the other two, and you may see that it clearly fits into the clue from earlier. However, even if you are not 100% sure about the definition of “polarizing,” the roots here are helpful to deduce the right answer. “Pole” is literally in the first syllable of the word. This may remind you of magnetic poles, or of the Earth’s North and South pole. These are, in a very literal sense, on opposing sides.
Similarly, “Vociferous” sounds like it has “voice” in the first portion of the word. Even if you don’t know the exact definition (“characterized by noisiness or clamor”), the word sounds as if it relates to speech or volume or such a category, and doesn’t obviously connect to the clue we had before.
All together, if we knew absolutely none of the answer choices, we can still characterize the fact that “Polarizing” seems to have a root that fits with the clue, “Vociferous” has a root that has nothing to do with the clue, “Spurious” doesn’t seem to fit with the clue based on past context, and “maudlin” offers no further information. Based on this information, you should guess “polarizing” as the correct answer – and in this case it would be correct.
Guess often, guess thoughtfully, and mark your guesses. There is no guessing penalty on the SAT. This means you have a 25% chance of getting credit for a question where you have absolutely no idea which answer is correct. By using context clues, root words, and the “sense” you get for a word, you can eliminate answers and increase this to 33-50% (or even to certainty). If the answer to a question isn’t immediately obvious (i.e. you know the exact answer choice that corresponds to the clue in the sentence), it is always worth it to quickly go through the above process to mark more and less likely answer choices, and make a guess based on those deductions. Then mark the question for review so you can return at the end if there is more time, and move on to the next question.
There is an alternate format of this question type where the exam will ask you what a word within the sentence means. For example:
The works of Banksy have long been viewed as controversial; while some view his art as cliché vandalism, others view his graffiti as a series of brilliant and perceptive statements on modern society.
In this text, what does the word “brilliant” most nearly mean?
A. irradiant
B. impressive
C. ignoble
D. indecisive
In this particular version of the question, there is typically a “trap” answer that is in fact a correct definition of the highlighted word, but is not the specific definition that makes sense in context. Brilliant and irradiant are synonyms and can both mean “giving off light,” but in the context of the sentence, brilliant means “impressive” rather than radiant. The answer should always fit within the meaning of the sentence.
Tactical Exercise: Vocabulary Inference
For each of the following words, write down what you think it means. If you do not know the word, try to use roots, similar words, and past context / idioms to jot down your expected definition, or simply characteristics you think the definition may have, even if this is broad or uncertain. Then check the actual definitions and see how you did!
• Abstruse
• Beguile
• Candor
• Demagogue
• Egregious
• Fortuitous
• Grandiloquent
• Heterogeneous
• Idiosyncratic
• Jettison
• Knell
• Largesse
• Mawkish
• Noisome
• Officious
• Partisan
• Quandary
• Requisition
• Sanctimonious
• Truculent
• Utilitarian
• Virtuoso
• Winsome
• Xanthic
• Yearning
• Zenith
Information Retrieval
These questions ask you to retrieve a piece of information from the text or whether a specific answer would best support or weaken the claims made in the text. Example as follows:
In the realm of literature, symbolism serves as a powerful tool for conveying deeper meanings beyond the surface narrative. Authors often utilize symbols to imbue their works with layers of significance, inviting readers to engage in critical interpretation. One such example is Nathaniel Hawthorne's classic novel "The Scarlet Letter," where the scarlet letter "A" worn by the protagonist, Hester Prynne, functions as a symbol of both her sin and her strength. Throughout the novel, the letter evolves in meaning, reflecting Hester's journey of redemption and self-discovery in the face of societal judgment. Hawthorne's masterful use of symbolism underscores the complexity of human experience and challenges readers to explore themes of guilt, morality, and forgiveness.
In the context of the paragraph, what does the scarlet letter "A" symbolize in Nathaniel Hawthorne's novel "The Scarlet Letter"?
A) Hester Prynne's ancestry
B) The town's admiration for Hester
C) Hester Prynne's sin and strength
D) The protagonist's desire for freedom
The key strategy for this question type is to avoid over-thinking or over-inference. The answers will be directly, identifiably included in the text. The most common Trap questions here are ones that seem reasonable (either because they are generally true, or because they are reasonable inferences from the rest of the text, but not actually specified). See the example below:
The Industrial Revolution, a period of profound economic and technological change that began in Britain in the late 18th century, transformed societies worldwide. Marked by the mechanization of production processes, the revolution led to the widespread adoption of factory-based manufacturing and the development of new machinery powered by steam and later, electricity. This shift from agrarian economies to industrialized urban centers spurred urbanization and population growth, fundamentally altering social structures and patterns of work. While the Industrial Revolution brought unprecedented wealth and innovation, it also gave rise to significant social inequalities and environmental challenges that continue to shape the modern world*
What statement about the Industrial Revolution does the author make in this paragraph?
A. The industrial revolution and its consequences have been a disaster for humanity
B. The industrial revolution is the primary driving force behind Climate Change
C. The industrial revolution has had both positive and negative impacts on the world
D. The industrial revolution took place in the 17th century
Answer D is the obvious wrong answer given the statement in the passage that the Industrial Revolution began in the late 18th century, but Answers A and B are more difficult to eliminate, as they are Traps of varying difficulty. Answer A is an opinion that some readers might hold, but is not the opinion espoused by the text. While the author notes negative outcomes of the Industrial Revolution, including “social inequalities and environmental challenges,” the passage does not go so far as to say this has been a disaster. Answer B is a more extreme version of a claim that is actually made in the text. The author says that the Industrial Revolution has given rise to “environmental challenges.” However, the passage does not specify Climate Change, nor does it make the more extreme claim that the Industrial Revolution is the primary cause (as opposed to one of many causes).
This brings us to our second key strategy, for the Reading section broadly but particularly for this variety of question: Take Note of Extreme Language. Any answer that includes words like “primary,” “all,” “never,” etc. is a strong claim, and strong claims require unambiguous proof within the text. Sure, the author may feel that the Industrial Revolution is a driver of Climate Change, and indeed the reader might personally think that it is the primary driver, but nothing in the passage actually makes a claim strong enough to support the word “primary.”
Inter-text Response
The next question type will present two passages by different authors and ask how one of the authors might respond to the claims made by the other.
(Text 1: “The Cruelty of Crypto” – Rachel O’Dwyer) Retail trading suddenly became popular during the pandemic. Mobile trading apps with zero fees, such as Robinhood, allowed users with little financial experience to dabble in the market. The media framed it as gambling in the absence of sports or horse racing, but that didn’t really capture the desperation, the individualisation of risk. Crypto and meme stocks symbolized, for many, a spot in the lifeboats. It was ‘Lambos or food stamps!’ Millennials and Gen Zs, in debt and with no chance of financing their futures through so-called ‘legitimate’ channels, were investing in high-risk, high-return stocks for the chance to win a down payment... If there is no safe or legitimate pathway to security, then why not try to win some in an all-in gamble. It was all or nothing. YOLO was the only sane response to perpetual crisis, to the end of the future. The good life wasn’t coming any other way.
(Text 2: “Are cryptocurrency traders pioneers or just risk-seekers?...” – Pelster et. Al.) Are cryptocurrency traders driven by a desire to invest in a new asset class to diversify their portfolio or are they merely seeking to increase their levels of risk? To answer this question, we use individual-level brokerage data and study their behavior in stock trading around the time they engage in their first cryptocurrency trade. We find that when engaging in cryptocurrency trading investors simultaneously increase their risk-seeking behavior in stock trading as they increase their trading intensity and use of leverage. The increase in risk-seeking in stocks is particularly pronounced when volatility in cryptocurrency returns is low, suggesting that their overall behavior is driven by excitement-seeking.
How would the author of Text 1 respond to the “increase [in] risk-seeking behavior” discussed in Text 2?
A. By arguing against the idea that cryptocurrency traders were taking additional risk
B. By framing the risk-seeking behavior as a response to perpetual crisis facing the younger generations
C. By suggesting that traders instead engage in sports gambling
D. By advocating for investment in real estate
The main challenge of dual text questions is time. They do not tend to be as full-of-traps as some of the other formats (although there are still traps). However, the sheer volume of content you need to read to answer the question can be a drain on your time.
Skim through both texts and try to understand the main point of the argument, but don’t close-read each passage before getting to the question. The question will direct you to exactly the parts of the passage that should be focused on.
In this case, the question asks specifically about Text 2’s “risk-seeking behavior.” Go back to text two and read around the quoted phrase (the final two sentences). Author 2 seems to be arguing that crypto traders increase risk-seeking behavior by increasing leverage, and that this is driven by excitement-seeking. What does Text 1 have to say about risk?
“Millennials and Gen Zs, in debt and with no chance of financing their futures through so-called ‘legitimate’ channels, were investing in high-risk, high-return stocks for the chance to win a down payment... If there is no safe or legitimate pathway to security, then why not try to win some in an all-in gamble. It was all or nothing.”
The Author of Text 1 seems to view risk as a response to a lack of “safe or legitimate pathway[s] to security.” This seems to broadly align with Choice B.
We then skim through the answer choices to confirm. Answer A) is obviously incorrect as both authors characterize cryptocurrency traders as risk-seeking. Answer C) is not advocated for by Text 1 and is a straightforward wrong answer. Answer D) is a stretch – while Text 1 notes the riskiness of crypto investments, and even seems to imply the danger thereof, it is not clear that the author would go so far as to recommend real estate as an alternative.
Main Purpose
The next Reading question format will ask you about the main purpose of a text, or of a sentence within a text. The key to this question type is to read the whole text and avoid falling into the (many) traps the exam will set up for you. Many of the wrong answers to these questions will seem correct in some way. See the example below:
"…for both Nobel couples, in France and the United States, some forty years apart, it was the husband who had position and status while the wife made do in marginal jobs. This pattern persisted for much of the twentieth century, and it applied to couples who did not collaborate directly, such as the German American theoretical physicist Maria Goeppert-Mayer and her American husband Joseph Mayer, a physical chemist. For the first thirty years of their marriage Joe was a distinguished university professor while Maria held a series of adjunct positions, even though she was internationally recognized for her theoretical work in quantum physics and nuclear physics. In 1960 both Joe and Maria accepted professorships at the University of California, San Diego, and in 1963 Maria was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics (with J. Hans D. Jensen) for the discovery and development of the nuclear shell model. A local newspaper headline, “La Jolla Mother Wins Nobel Prize,” shows just how unimaginable it still was, sixty years after Marie Curie’s first Nobel Prize, for the words “scientist” or “physicist” to be used when referring to a woman." (MIT Press “Women in Science: Struggle & Success, the Tale of Mileva Einstein-Maric, Einstein’s Wife)
Which answer best describes the main purpose of the text?
A. To highlight the accomplishments of Maria Mayer in the 1960’s
B. To describe the history of Maria and Joe Mayer’s marriage spanning forty years
C. To show the persistence of gender-based inequalities in recognition within the field of science in the mid 20th century
D. To describe a theory within nuclear physics that was important in 1963
In this example, almost every wrong answer is a trap of some sort. This is common.
Answer A) is included within the passage (as it talks about Maria’s Nobel prize in physics), but is not the main point of the passage. The discussion of the Nobel Prize is only included in the passage as contrast to her lack of widespread recognition (“held a series of adjunct positions” …. “La Jolla Mother Wins Nobel Prize”).
Answer B) is a trap for students who only skimmed the passage. The 40-year marriage described in the first sentence is not actually the Mayers’. Even if it was, the passage is not a description of their marriage.
Answer D) is another within-text trap. An important theory within nuclear physics is indeed mentioned in the passage. But again, that is not the point of the passage. The function it serves is to highlight the accomplishments of Maria Mayer, which then serves as juxtaposition to Maria’s lack of recognition.
All together, the points made within the passage lead the reader to an argument about the persistence of gender-based inequalities for women in science, where even if women succeeded meritocratically at the same level as men, these accomplishments did not necessarily translate into professional success, widespread recognition, or normalization. Answer C) is the correct choice.
This is a question type that harshly punishes skimming/shortcuts, and so I would suggest actually reading through the passage carefully. However there are a few tips to maximize your time and accuracy here.
• Pay attention to the starting and ending sentences. Passages will often lay out their argument in the initial sentences as framing, or conclude it in the final sentences. Pay particular attention to these portions as they can direct you towards the broader meaning of the passage and away from individual arguments within specific sentences in the body. It is easier to see the forest for the trees if you’re looking at the edge.
• Pay attention to “however” and other words that signal a turn in the argument. These words can help you distinguish between individual sentence claims and the overarching argument being made. In the following example, choice A is a Trap answer that is indeed the main idea of the first two sentences, but not the main idea of the broader passage. The “However” in sentence 3 clues us into this – it helps us characterize the claims in sentences 1 and 2 as set-up / intro claims rather than the main argument.
The evolution of technology has revolutionized communication in the modern era. From the invention of the telegraph to the advent of smartphones, each innovation has brought unprecedented connectivity and convenience. However, alongside these advancements come concerns about privacy and security. In an age where personal information is exchanged with the tap of a screen, individuals grapple with the balance between convenience and safeguarding their data. As society continues to embrace emerging technologies, the importance of digital literacy and responsible online behavior becomes increasingly paramount.
What is the main idea of the paragraph?
A) The benefits of technological advancements in communication.
B) The importance of safeguarding personal information in the digital age.
C) The evolution of communication devices from the telegraph to smartphones.
D) The convenience of exchanging information through digital platforms.
• Recognize tangents/details that are not likely to be helpful and skim over them, avoiding wasting mental energy/time on less-relevant details. There are many specifics laid out in this passage, including dates, names, and locations. Some of these may end up being useful for other question types in the future, but are not as relevant for big picture Purpose questions. I would recommend reading through the whole passage, but not focusing too intently on processing these details unless you see a question that specifically pertains to them. If there is such a question, you can go back and parse the text more carefully.
There is an offshoot of this question type that, instead of asking for the main point, will ask for the logical conclusion of the passage. Use similar strategies here. The main question of the paragraph will typically be introduced early on – but may not be the first sentence (Trap: the first sentence can be a setting-the-stage description). The final sentence or two of the paragraph will typically be the evidence points that drive the conclusion. Ask yourself what question is posed by the passage in the beginning and why the evidence at the end is relevant to that question. Example below:
The autoimmune disease Multiple Sclerosis (MS) affects nearly 1 million women in the United States, and can lead to substantial disability including fatigue, muscle spasms, mobility issues, and impaired coordination. The underlying cause of Multiple Sclerosis has been difficult to ascertain, despite decades of fervent research. Recent longitudinal studies published in Science and Nature suggest a strong correlation between Multiple Sclerosis prevalence and positive tests for Epstein-Barr Virus (EBV). Therefore, many researchers are warming to the notion that _____.
Which choice most logically completes the text?
A. Multiple Sclerosis is a debilitating disease that affects many patients
B. Epstein-Barr Virus may have beneficial effects in treating Multiple Sclerosis
C. Epstein-Barr Virus may be a causal factor for development of Multiple Sclerosis
D. We may never know the underlying cause of Multiple Sclerosis
Answer A) is a trap here – it is indeed a claim made by the passage, and is specifically made in the early portion of the text. However, in the context of the passage, this sentence is not the main idea – it is a set-up statement that sets the stage for why the reader should care about the following arguments. Answer C is a Trap for readers who skimmed; “Epstein-Barr Virus” and “positive” appear close together in the text, and so can be misleading. Of course, the “positive” in this case refers to the test for EBV, and EBV is not implied to be beneficial anywhere in the actual passage. Answer D) may be true (although we hope otherwise) but is not argued anywhere in the text. The real question posed by the passage is revealed in sentence 2: the cause of MS has been mostly unknown, so far. The passage then provides evidence in sentence 3 that potentially links MS to EBV, offering a potential solution to this question that some researchers could reasonably believe. Thus Answer C) offers the real logical completion to the text, as it connects the Question statement with the Evidence offered in a logically complete manner.
Each sentence within a passage will typically serve some sort of function. Identifying these functions quickly as you skim through a passage will be instrumental in helping answer a lot of the Reading section questions, especially the Main Purpose / Conclusion variety.
Here are some common functions:
- Context: Often used at the beginning of passages, context statements set-the-stage for the discussion ahead but typically do not engage directly with the main purpose of the passage. These are common Trap answers.
- Motivation: This is a subset of Context sentences that, while providing background, more specifically sets up the question for the passage or the main conflict that the Argument of the passage will try to resolve. This may be difficult to identify when you’ve only read the beginning of the passage, but after identifying the Arguments and Evidence, you can look back at the Context sentences and see if any of them are actually providing Motivation and setting up the question, vs. just giving broader background context.
- Argument: The author makes an actual argument or claim advocating for a viewpoint.
- Perspective: This function looks like the Argument sentence, but is told from the perspective of someone else, e.g. “Some scientists believe that ____.” This is an important distinction, because perspective sentences can set the author up to offer a rebuttal, or a counter-perspective. In those cases, the perspective statement is not the main point of the passage, whereas a traditional argument usually is the main idea, or a portion of it.
- Rebuttal: The author rebuts a previous perspective, and makes an Argument counter to previously established views. Watch out for “However,” “But,” and other words that signify a “turn.” In passages where the author offers a third party Perspective and then a Rebuttal, the Rebuttal is usually the main idea (or close to it) whereas the Perspective is very likely to be a Trap answer.
- (Counter)-Perspective: The author may also contrast two opposing viewpoints without actually taking a side. In this case, you will still see “turn” words like “however” or “others” or “in contrast,” but the author may not actually take a view supporting one side over another. In this case both Perspective sentences are Trap answers, and the main point of the passage may be simply to contrast two viewpoints.
- Qualifier: The author may also use a “turn” phrase very late in the passage, such as the end. In this case, the sentence may not be an actual rebuttal, but more of a qualifier. After spending most of the passage talking about the benefits of X, for example, the author may also acknowledge at the end that there are some downsides of X as well. In this case the Qualifier is NOT the main purpose of the passage, as the Evidence provided in the text is primarily supporting the original claim. The Qualifier only exists to offer a more comprehensive view and reduce bias in the text.
- Evidence: These are factual sentences or phrases in the passage that act as supporting data for Arguments, Rebuttals, and Perspectives/Counter-Perspectives
Tactical Exercise: Deconstruction
For each of the following passages, identify with initials (C, M, A, P, R, Q, E) what function the sentence plays in the text. Then, underline or highlight the sentence that most closely describes the main idea of the text.
1. The Industrial Revolution, a period of significant technological advancements and socioeconomic changes, began in the late 18th century and continued into the 19th century. During this time, innovations in manufacturing processes, such as the mechanization of textile production and the invention of the steam engine, transformed the way goods were produced and distributed. Factories emerged as the new centers of production, leading to urbanization as rural populations migrated to cities in search of employment opportunities. The Industrial Revolution also had far-reaching effects on society, including the rise of capitalism, the expansion of global trade networks, and the emergence of new social classes. Despite its undeniable impact on economic growth and technological progress, the Industrial Revolution also brought about significant challenges, such as poor working conditions, environmental degradation, and widening economic disparities.*
2. The exploration of space has long captured the imagination of humanity, driving scientific discovery and technological innovation. Since the launch of the first artificial satellite, Sputnik 1, by the Soviet Union in 1957, space exploration has expanded to encompass manned missions, planetary probes, and ambitious endeavors like the International Space Station. Beyond the pursuit of scientific knowledge, space exploration has also served as a symbol of human achievement and cooperation on a global scale. Collaborative efforts between nations have led to groundbreaking discoveries about our universe, while inspiring future generations to reach for the stars.*
3. Climate change, driven primarily by human activities such as the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation, poses a significant threat to the planet's ecosystems and inhabitants. Rising global temperatures have led to melting polar ice caps, more frequent and severe weather events, and disruptions to agricultural systems. Furthermore, the resulting changes in sea levels and precipitation patterns have profound implications for biodiversity, food security, and human health. Urgent action is needed to mitigate the impacts of climate change, including reducing greenhouse gas emissions, transitioning to renewable energy sources, and implementing adaptation measures to build resilience in vulnerable communities.*
4. In recent years, the phenomenon of social media has transformed the way people communicate, interact, and consume information. Platforms like Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram have facilitated connections among individuals across the globe, allowing for the exchange of ideas, experiences, and perspectives in real-time. However, the widespread use of social media has also raised concerns about privacy, mental health, and the spread of misinformation. As users curate their online personas and engage in constant comparison, the line between reality and virtuality becomes increasingly blurred. Despite these challenges, social media continues to shape cultural norms, political discourse, and societal values in profound ways, underscoring the need for critical engagement and responsible usage.*
5. The concept of artificial intelligence (AI) has rapidly gained prominence in various fields, from healthcare and finance to transportation and entertainment. AI systems, powered by complex algorithms and machine learning techniques, have demonstrated remarkable capabilities in tasks such as image recognition, natural language processing, and decision-making. These advancements hold the promise of revolutionizing industries, improving efficiency, and enhancing human lives. However, concerns about the ethical implications of AI, including issues related to bias, accountability, and job displacement, have also emerged. As society continues to grapple with the opportunities and challenges presented by AI, careful consideration and responsible development are crucial to harnessing its full potential while mitigating risks.*